Guicharnaud, J., ‘The Wreathed Columns of Saint Peter’s’, Yale French Studies 35 (1965) 29–38. But who or what is capable of creating the order that exists if not an all-powerful, supremely wise hand? In the titular last church, the very last worshipper and priest on Earth, Uriah Olathaire, is visited by a mysterious figure. Schaeffer, N., The Marquis de Sade: a Life (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999). 1904); Justine (Les Infortunes de la vertu, novel, 1st version of Justine, 1787, pub. Juliette will never address her philosophical concerns to the Jacobins, yet she claims pride in the Revolution when faced with the old pontiff. According to her plan and after giving her the keys of the palace, Braschi then moves into the second part of the dialogue, the dissertation that serves as a justification of the Church as an institution that maintains vice prosperous. At this central point of the novel, Juliette confirms Žižek’s theory that true materialism can only be attained through the Christian experience. Of all of France’s enlightened figures, Sade should be envisioned as the most fascinating bridge connecting the Ancien Régime to the Premier Empire. The dialogue is based on an inversion of one of Catholicism’s most sacred rites—the last one—usually given at the crucial moment of salvation. Following the Physicians Tale, the Host began to swear as if he were mad, wishing a shameful death on the judge and his advocates, and concluding that the cause of the maidens death was her beautee. DYING MAN. In this particular passage, she travels to the unreality of the oldest religious institution of Western Europe. On the other hand, the Histoire de Juliette is the product of a disillusioned author who has witnessed ten years of Revolution turned into the Terror. However, the clear-cut opposition we find in the Dialogue entre un prêtre et un moribond will no longer have any raison d’être with the fall of the Ancien Régime and the persecution of the réfractaire clergy. In this respect, the Dialogue entre un prêtre et un moribond is a Sadean tableau whose pattern will serve as a basis for later works. It displays, however, the earliest form of a trend which would continue throughout de Sade's writings: a persistent adherence to a personally coherent philosophy of life (really a rejection of a particular set of ideals), heavily influenced by prominent philosophers of his day, but never formally presented. In the first half of his career as a writer, during the last years before the Revolution, Sade published a short pamphlet titled Dialogue entre un prêtre et un moribond (1782) in line with Diderot’s Supplément au Voyage de Bougainville (1771). At last, without God, without an afterlife, natural law must permit a man to enjoy his time on earth. After some witty and macabre banter on the nature of gravedigging, Hamlet and Horatio enter. Department of Languages, Linguistics and Comparative Literature, Florida Atlantic University, FL 33431, USA. In true Platonic fashion, the dying man's arguments dominate the arguments, using the priest's short objections at most to effect a progression in the discussion. In the Dialogue entre un prêtre et un moribond, Sade recycles many arguments from Diderot’s Supplément. xl.—he returns to the mosaic laws, and proves that they were figures of the things which pertain to christ. For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription. This is an epitaph Sade wrote but that was never engraved on his stone. The man repents, not of his religious transgressions, but of his failure in taking full advantage of the opportunities presented by nature; There can be no faith in a supreme Creator, since he is not proveable by reason, and so the tenet of free will leads inevitably to a logical simplification of understanding to its most basic form. Nowhere else in the novel does she follow such a premeditated and outlined philosophical interlocution. As Thomas J.J. Altizer has proposed in Godhead and the Nothing (2003) when referring to such paradoxical conflicts between atheists and Christianity: [it] can be understood as an archetypal model of the opposition between heresy and orthodoxy, one illuminating the very identity of orthodoxy and heresy, for each only fully became itself by way of its opposition to the other, and each is inseparable from the other, and inseparable if only because each is finally meaningless apart from the other. See all formats and editions Hide other formats and editions. Many contemporary cinematographic representations have insisted on this most obscure and final stage of the marquis’ existence, such as Quills released in 2000. EVOLUTION OF THE SADEAN DIALOGUES THROUGH THE REVOLUTION AND THE TERROR, III. The dialogue unravels along the four requests she has outlined to the pontiff. Like Diderot’s missionary in Tahiti, this priest will also give in to carnal pleasure and accompany the dying man in his last orgy, a materialist substitute for the Catholic last rites. Student A: You are the priest: Ask Hōïchi about his life, music and poems. Jeangène Vilmer, J.-B., La religion de Sade (Ivry-sur-Seine: Les Editions de l’Atelier, 2008). Allow them to write the dialogue first if necessary. After the experience of the Terror, however, the monumental Histoire de Juliette (1801) became his greatest collection of philosophical dialogues included within a greater travel narrative. chap. Juliette has also learned in Rome that ‘le crime n’est autre chose que le moyen dont la nature se sert pour arriver à ses desseins sur nous, et pour maintenir l’équilibre si nécessaire au maintien de ses opérations’ (III, 839). Altizer, Thomas J.J., Godhead and the Nothing (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2003). (Sade III, p. 853–54). Žižek, S., The Puppet and the Dwarf: the Perverse Core of Christianity (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2003). It is rather short, and far from perfect, representing rather a distillation of his embryonic beliefs on government and natural law; letters written to his wife from prison mention his readings of Lucretius, Voltaire, and a desperate plea to be sent the writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, all of whose ideas leave behind more than trace elements in the dialogue. On the contrary, the whole structure of the unfinished work is based on unbreakable hierarchies, in line with those built by the Church throughout the centuries. Dialogue Between a Priest and a Dying Man (original French: Dialogue entre un prêtre et un moribond) is a dialogue written by the Marquis de Sade while incarcerated at the Château de Vincennes in 1782. Sollers, P., Sade contre l’être Suprême (Paris: Gallimard, 2001). Glaucoma (an ailment of eye) Whereas the first three conversations take place in a clinic, the last two take place in a hospital. The dialogue between its libertine protagonist Juliette and Pope Pius VI reflected Sade’s paradoxical perception of the Revolution. A dialogue is a reciprocal conversation between two or more persons. As the dying man of the Dialogue had emphasised (‘un égal besoin de vices et de vertues’), Nature from a Materialist viewpoint is all about maintaining balances, and an institution of organised religion that insists on the rewarding quality of virtues is also responsible for generating vice in order to keep a balance. Consequently, we find Juliette in a very different situation since she owes the pope for the teaching she will receive from him. Yes. Student B: You are Hōïchi: Tell the priest about your life. The Host pronounced the tale a piteous one to listen to, and prayed to God that he protect the Physicians body. Second, she requires the pope to deliver to her (and to her only!) Nonetheless, Sade exposes the paradoxical nature of faith since he emphasises the pope’s adoption of Catholicism as a façade for a truly libertine lifestyle, while Juliette remains fascinated by the liturgical aspects of the religion and wonders how she could include Catholic asceticism in her libertine life. 108 pages (pdf) Discuss this script. Even though materialism has overcome Catholicism partially with the French Revolution, Sade is aware that there are still a lot of efforts to be made before France can totally erase it from its collective memory, if that will ever be possible. Sade, D. A. F., Oeuvres I, II & III (Paris: Editions Gallimard Pléiade, 1990). 1926); The 120 Days of Sodom, or the School of Licentiousness (Les 120 journées de Sodome, ou l'École du libertinage, novel, 1785, pub. Dialogue Between A Priest And A Dying Man Paperback – October 15, 2011 by Marquis De Sade (Author), Maurice Heine (Editor), Samuel Putnam (Translator) & 5.0 out of 5 stars 2 ratings. Not only is the pope a history book for Juliette to read, he is also the master of the ‘capitale des Etats chrétiens’ (III, 767) that Juliette soon designates as the ‘capitale du monde’ (III, 768). This article seeks to emphasise the evolution of Sade’s so-called ‘anti-Catholicism’ through the comparison of these two dialogues. Rather, however, than admit anarchy, man's relationships, his understanding of society, must be built on the logical benefits to society as a whole (. DYING MAN. First, she wants Pius VI to surrender the keys of the Vatican to her. This merging of their two opposite bodies, in complement to the dialogue, stands as the ultimate annihilation of the traditional divisions that the Revolution has failed to offer to libertines, who are now turning to their previous enemy, the Roman Church, for spiritual guidance. Tout cela est-il vrai Braschi ? The pope turns out to be the perfect embodiment of the institution he represents, that is, an accumulation of several philosophical layers, with its sum of theological disputes, its headquarter basilica built on top of other temples, its liturgy that has taken over ancient rites. Humour is another tool used by the materialist atheists to underline what they identified as the comic nature of the Roman Catholic religion. Book 5 of 5: Freethinker's Classics. As a member of the Court, the priest reproaches K. for deluding himself about the nature of the Law which he has to "serve." chap. In the first millennium of the Church’s history, co-habitation among members of the clergy and/or between a priest and a lay-woman was not uncommon. Juliette will lead the first part of the dialogue and set the tone that will have to be adopted throughout the episode. But he replaces the Tahitian chief (the archetype of Rousseau’s noble savage, bien entendu) by a moribund man about to receive the last rites, at the very moment when one has to face not only death, but also faith. Frédéric Conrod, Face-To-Face with the Dying Priest: Dialogue Between a Libertine and a Pope in Histoire De Juliette, Literature and Theology, Volume 24, Issue 4, December 2010, Pages 331–344, https://doi.org/10.1093/litthe/frq043. After the experience of the Revolution and the Terror, however, the monumental Histoire de Juliette (1801) becomes his greatest collection of philosophical dialogues included within a greater travel narrative. Comparing the two dialogues also enables us to take a closer look at the deceptive experience of the Revolution from the perspective of the libertines who see themselves in worse conditions under the New Regime than the Old. Their former student, now converted into a libertine philosopher,4 understood nature and materialism in terms similar to the ones we find in their economy of salvation, without involving astronomy, physics or biology in the discussion. Under the Consulate it was reborn and still Sade is its victim. This anonymity allows the reader to picture this familiar procedure with faces of his/her choice (for instance, his or her local clergyman). The way Lovelace studied women, Sade studied priests – to ferret out their weakness, their hypocrisy, their self-deceptions. Some notes • It is not yet clear why Capitan Tiago is hosting a dinner. Because Braschi is the Dying Priest, the incarnation of what Sade perceived as a dying institution, he is in dire need of investors like Juliette, potential spiritual heirs through whom the secrets of the Vatican can be transmitted. Juliette will have to compete with the old man in all of these different areas of philosophy. 2 This notion has been explored extensively in a recent study by Frédéric Conrod, Loyola’s Greater Narrative: the Architecture of the Spiritual Exercises in Golden Age and Enlightenment Literature (New York: Peter Lang, 2008). But these dialogues are based on an educative relationship: one of the interlocutors is always in a position of teacher for the company around her or him. distinction is between both! A LIBERTINE IN THE VATICAN: JULIETTE’S MATERIALIST CONFIRMATION, IV. Dialogue between a Priest and a Dying Man By the Marquis de Sade RIEST: Now that the fatal hour is upon you wherein the veil of illusion is torn aside only to confront every deluded man with the cruel tally of his errors and vices, do you, my The priest finally accepts the philosophical demonstration of the dying man, as he would an unquestionable mathematical solution impossible to refute in a post-Cartesian culture such as 1782 France. Cinema has yet to show an interest in this pre-Revolutionary Sade. Jésus, leur chef, dit positivement : « Je ne suis pas venu pour être servi, mais pour servir; il n’y aura jamais parmi vous ni premier ni dernier… Celui de vous qui voudra s’agrandir, sera abaissé; celui de vous qui voudra être le premier sera le dernier. Very soon in their dialogue, she realises that his level of libertinage goes far beyond her own. Under the Terror, it lived once more, set Sade on the abyss’s rim. He convinces the priest to join him, and, swayed by the pleasure and his argumentative failure, the priest converts to Reason. Most typically, philosophical dialogues alternate with orgies in novels such as Les cent vingt journées de Sodome (1785) or La philosophie dans le boudoir (1795). It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide, This PDF is available to Subscribers Only. Through the mutual deconstruction of their respective discourses Juliette and the pope agree on the necessity to sacrifice their own bodies, reach the ‘final orgasm’ and merge their two traditionally opposite discourses into one higher revelation of Nature. She will receive the Body through anal penetration. Systematically, these Materialist educators adopt the tone of their Catholic predecessors in order to convince their audience that it is only the essence of the message that has changed, not its format. Journal of the History of Philosophy 38.4 (2000) 586-588 Gregory Palamas (1296-1359) was a Byzantine monk who rose to become Archbishop of Thessalonica and a leading theologian of the Orthodox Church. After the unrealistically long dialogue with the pope, she has gone to the bottom of all the abysses. Their humoristic and entertaining value is no longer conceived as an obstacle to Catholic discourse. His projection of the Church through Pius VI is other than the one we find in the 1771 pamphlet: not only does the Pope appear as a combination of the priest with the dying man, but he also comes in the novel to challenge Juliette and finally ‘ordain’ her as one of the few superior beings of this earth to understand the very secret of Nature: vice and virtue are the same thing and have been divided in two faces in order to control the weak and guarantee the survival of the fittest. The universe, however, is regulated, in its most basic form by cause and effect; the example of a spark igniting gunpowder, which is a necessary chain, but does not stem from divine wisdom. PRIEST. Before the sun goes down today, between 50 and 70 billion of your cells will die. The principles of equality that she stresses in the original message of Jesus are in agreement with the renversement des valeurs that France is experiencing while Sade writes Juliette. The priest enters, therefore, this figurative stage and announces that he is ready to contemplate the dying man’s ‘tableau cruel [des] erreurs de [des] vices’ (cruel painting of errors and vices) (I, 3). While the priest begins with this recited procedure, the man on the deathbed admits that he is going through a stage of parallel penitence: in fact, the moribund man repents of having paid too much attention to Christian principles during his lifetime. Interestingly enough, over the course of her journey, the only category of beings superior to the libertines in the hierarchy of immorality is the bishop of Rome. Braschi uses both history and theology to show how the Catholic Church has contributed to her own maintenance while worrying primarily about the équilibre of all things in Nature. This desecration of the Roman liturgy will be the confirmation that she has chosen to become a legitimate philosophical heir of the old pope. With this early publication, he exposed with clarity the lines of what he perceived to be the future of all spiritualities: materialist atheism, a philosophy he hoped would do away with centuries of Catholicism. However, when he found the perfect candidate, the sublime Clarissa, he subjected her virtue to a test no one could possibly pass, and thus destroyed the very thing that he sought. As a consequence of this consistent teaching mission, the format followed with the priest and the dying man tends to disappear temporarily in works published after the Revolution, to the benefit of newer dialectical interactions typical of the developing novel in Western Europe, where clear-cut theological dichotomies tend to self-deconstruct. Sade invites to a violence whose abyss is the same as Catholicism’s invitation to self-sacrifice. As Marcel Hénaff reminds us, ‘the libertine’s ultimate defiance, or subterfuge, will be to declare his death desirable, to crave it as the final orgasm’ (p. 103). This new format enabled the author to attract audiences of ‘lustful philosophers’ in times of moral dérèglement, that is, of revolutionary transition towards a reinvented spirituality. But when he saw the man lying there, he crossed to the other side of the road and passed him by. Practices that fell into the undefined space between marriage and chaste asceticism were not approved of by the majority of Christians. Slavoj Žižek writes in his provocative reading of the Christian narrative from a Lacanian perspective, The Puppet and the Dwarf: the Perverse Core of Christianity (2003), that such transgressive reversals are provoked by Christianity and that this perversion is at the core of the faith itself: ‘nowhere is [the] paradoxical reversal more evident than in the work of Sade, where the unconstrained assertion of sexuality deprived of the vestiges of spiritual transcendence turns sexuality itself into a mechanical exercise devoid of any authentic passion’ (p. 39). As living encyclopaedia, Pius VI is a combination of materialist, philosopher, theologian, historian and a bit of a scientist too: all these disciplines co-exist in the moribund body of the Pontiff without the slightest contradiction. the Church to recognize this conversation between Penitent and Priest as an action of Christ: contrition, confession of all serious sins remembered since their last confession, and a willingness to repair the damage caused by their sin. It is certainly one of his earliest attempts at displaying a coherent political philosophy. Will not gunpowder explode of necessity when lit by a match? People are shocked that a priest would consort with such a monster, but the encounter is important to the deranged young man, in that some sort of recognition of guilt and desire for forgiveness are realized. Her attitude is to adopt a position of dominion on the pope’s own territory: she will demonstrate her mastery of theology in her opening argument: Il se forme dans la Galilée une religion dont les bases sont la pauvreté, l’égalité et la haine des riches : les principes de cette sainte doctrine sont qu’il est aussi impossible à un riche d’entrer dans le royaume des cieux, qu’à un chameau de passer par le trou d’une aiguille… que le riche est damné uniquement parce qu’il est riche. Since the anonymous publication of The Treatise of the Three Impostors around 1711, this category of pro-atheism publication had become a very popular genre for its humoristic ridiculing of the Catholic clergy. With this early publication, he Everything2 ™ is brought to you by Everything2 Media, LLC. CONCLUSION: IN THE ABYSS, VIOLENCE IS LOVE, Receive exclusive offers and updates from Oxford Academic. In Les cent vingt journées, relationships of philosophical equality, such as the one our two archetypical interlocutors had in the Dialogue, have completely disappeared. (…) Nowhere is this so clear as it is in our deepest modern philosophical ‘atheists’: Spinoza, Hegel, and Nietzsche, each of whom truly reversed the absolute transcendence of God (p. 5). Yet the progression of materialism as a philosophy will be undermined in parallel with the decay of its opponent and raison d’être, the Roman Catholic Church, once France enters the Revolution and the Terror. The inclusion of such dialogues will be developed in later works of the marquis. Yet none of the interpretations they discuss emerges as absolutely correct. For this reason, this Dialogue is a jewel for anyone studying rhetorical artefacts as well as theological disputes: Sade gives an example of total discursive absorption. In order to do so, the wise islander—whose culture has remained driven by natural instincts—systematically opposes to Christian belief the elementary impulses of Nature. This aggressive and abrupt opening not only aims to question the legitimacy of Braschi as successor of Peter, but also forces the pope to surrender to the total transparency required by Juliette: ‘j’ôte le masque’, (Sade III, 861) and ‘ton ascendant l’emporte’ (Sade III, 862). Additional Physical Format: Online version: Sade, marquis de, 1740-1814. All The conversation between V. Wyttes ... be settled only when the dying man assures the priest, no model of the im poverished Christian life, "you shall have money paid out to you for the tolling of the bells, funeral dirges, monument, and burial before you leave On the other hand, outside of the jouissance he can obtain from Juliette, it is difficult to understand why the pontiff would want to engage in a dialectical battle with a young libertine who has hundreds of peers throughout Rome. This more civil version of the enigmatic figure might be lesser known, yet Sade’s fascination in his youth for philosophical démonstrations of the non-existence of the immaterial substance of the human soul is an essential point of departure for the study of his later and more canonical works. Who argues that there is not? He was in … Perhaps Geoffrey Rush would be the perfect actor to represent Pius VI in this dialogue, if a director would ever dare to adapt Juliette’s (hi)story to the big screen. Dialogue Between a Priest and a Dying Man (Dialogue entre un prêtre et un moribond, 1782, pub. In Diderot’s famous Supplément, for instance, the chief of a Tahitian tribe challenges a Catholic missionary at the very core of his Catholic faith with an innocent tone that would make all the intellectuals in Paris laugh. Neither name nor age is attributed to either of the two opposed generic figures. It is tempting to see the marquis de Sade as an icon of Evil, or a maniaco-depressive writer obsessed with lust, agonising in some prison cell or soul asylum from which he still published anti-Catholic pamphlets and made the life of his supervising priest unbearable. In this respect, the converting effect that it will have on Juliette echoes the Dialogue entre un prêtre et un moribond. The dialogue may as well have been patterned on some of the simpler Socratic Dialogues of Plato; a man lies on his death-bed and, spurred by the attendant priest's urge to confess his sins and take his last rites, begins a debate on the supremacy of logic and natural law over the hobgoblins of … Featured: Kunstformen der Natur (1904) by Ernst Haeckel. In a recent monograph entitled La religion de Sade (2008), Jeangène Vilmer comes to the conclusion that Sade deifies the sexual and sexualises the religious (p. 115). As a brilliant student of history, she follows the lineage between Peter the Apostle and her interlocutor: she describes every bishop of Rome as a vicious actor and denounces their cruelty in an unexpected fashion, given her own taste for torture and pain. In this film, the philosophical and theological oppositions between the marquis (interpreted by Geoffrey Rush) and the young priest (Joaquin Phoenix) are at the centre of the plot. Cardinal Bernis, who presents the young libertine to the pope in these terms, speaks for Juliette and adds that: ‘singulièrement honorée de la faveur que vous lui faîtes, elle vous promet de se prêter aveuglement à tout ce qu’il plaira à Votre Sainteté’ (III, 853). The dimension of Christianity that Juliette seeks to emphasise here is close to the ideology of the French Revolution. Il est défendu aux disciples de ce culte de ne jamais faire aucune provision. The correspondence between the two dialogues lies in the representation that Sade makes of the Catholic Church before and after the Revolution. Ne cherche que ses lois pour unique cause à notre inconséquence humaine, et ne cherche à ses lois d'autres principes que ses volontés et ses besoins (Sade I, 6).3. This ritual undermines René Girard’s argument developed throughout most of his career as a writer (notably in The Scapegoat, Violence and the Sacred and I see Satan like Lightning) and according to which a scapegoat’s sacrifice is necessary to reestablish order in times of turmoil. Concession for the sake of argument that if God exists, he is worshipped under many forms; each prophet has the possibility of being equally valid, since each depends on faith (Q.E.D. All these precautions underline that she is the child of the French Enlightenment, facing a Roman Church who survives beyond the French borders. Yet, Juliette is introduced to the Pope as ‘la jeune française que vous avez désirée’. Monsters were often considered portents, or theological evidences, in the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance. This relatively new creed mainly derives from the refutation of Descartes’ dualism. On the contrary, he emphasises that both virtues and religious belief are consequences of natural inclinations: elle est, mon ami, cette âme, ce qu'il a plu à la nature qu'elle soit, c'est-à-dire le résultat des organes qu'elle s'est plu de me former en raison de ses vues et de ses besoins; et comme elle a un égal besoin de vices et de vertus, quand il lui a plu de me porter aux premiers, elle m'en a inspiré les désirs, et je m'y suis livré tout de même. There is no grey area between the priest and the dying man: they stand as radical opposites whose battle results in the capitulation of the religious man and the victory of the materialist moribund, whose expiration in carnal pleasure parodies the crucifixion of Christ. In addition, Sade lived in times of heavy ideological diffusions through pamphlets, a format that overcame the limitations of censorship. That’s 350 billion cells a week. Perhaps this image corresponds to the ageing marquis, a slowly dying man in systematic opposition with the young and naive pastor of a dying institution. Throughout their interaction, the young woman will want to feed on the old man’s body and absorb the last drop of vital energy from him in order for him to confront his death. Conversation between ACNA priest and Episcopal Bishop COVENTRY CATHEDRAL : Conversation ... And he was a man living in a sexual relationship that was not marriage. Lovelace sought to find a woman worthy of his love. The dying man repents that he has been distracted from his true allegiance to natural instincts, the one and only finality of humankind according to his final existential conclusions. 4 A common phenomenon since Voltaire provides the example earlier on in the century. Search for other works by this author on: © The Author 2010. Whereas the dying man was supposedly in debt to the priest in the 1771 Dialogue, Juliette is at the other end of the spectrum: she enters the stage as a debtor. Published by Oxford University Press 2010; all rights reserved. Contents. While growing up in the library of his libertine uncle, a priest who also happened to be a personal friend of Voltaire, the young aristocrat was exposed to the literary technique of dialogue d’antagonistes, a rhetorical tool as old as Socrates and as young as Diderot’s Supplément. a philosophical dissertation on crime. Juliette is a monstrous body in the primary sense of the adjective, derived from the latin verb mostrare (to show). According to Sade’s biographer Neil Schaeffer: [Sade] was like Lovelace, the satanic libertine of Samuel Richardson’s Clarissa. It is simply parodied in the most extreme ways, as its many provocatively atheistic ceremonies demonstrate. Related e. Wikipedia Wiktionary Shop. The inclusion of the famous essay ‘Français, encore un effort avant d’être républicains’ in this novel proves that the object of the work is to set the foundations for political materialism, a new system that will hold a stronger grip on the Revolution than the deist approach. Third, Juliette demands to receive communion from the pope, but on her own terms, that is, through the inversion of the ritual. Paz, O., An Erotic Beyond: Sade (New York: Harcourt Brace and Co, 1998). With this early publication, he exposed with clarity the lines of what he perceived to be the future of all spiritualities: materialist atheism, a philosophy he hoped would do away with centuries of Catholicism. He emphasises in this process the tragic limitations that any monotheist religion can have on human existence, including its lack of humour. There isn’t any. The order of her exigences enables us to understand the logic of her démonstration. 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